城市污水再生利用現狀分析
論文(wen)作(zuo)者：王(wang)洪臣(chen) 甘一萍(ping) 周軍 應啟鋒 王(wang)佳偉(wei)
摘要：地球上總(zong)的(de)(de)水(shui)(shui)(shui)體積(ji)大約為14億(yi)(yi)km3，其(qi)中(zhong)只(zhi)有2.5%是淡(dan)水(shui)(shui)(shui)，大部分(fen)以(yi)永(yong)久性冰或雪的(de)(de)形式封存(cun)于南極洲和格陵(ling)蘭(lan)島，而可(ke)供人(ren)類利(li)用的(de)(de)部分(fen)僅有20萬km3 [1]。 中(zhong)國(guo) 多年平均(jun)(jun)水(shui)(shui)(shui)資(zi)(zi)源(yuan)總(zong)量(liang)28100億(yi)(yi)m3，人(ren)均(jun)(jun)水(shui)(shui)(shui)資(zi)(zi)源(yuan)量(liang)2200m3，排在(zai)世界第88位，人(ren)均(jun)(jun)水(shui)(shui)(shui)資(zi)(zi)源(yuan)僅為世界人(ren)均(jun)(jun)的(de)(de)四分(fen)之(zhi)一[2~3]。根據“國(guo)際人(ren)口(kou)行(xing)動”對(dui)我國(guo)水(shui)(shui)(shui)資(zi)(zi)源(yuan)進行(xing)的(de)(de)總(zong)體評價，預(yu)計到(dao)(dao)21世紀中(zhong)葉我國(guo)人(ren)口(kou)達(da)到(dao)(dao)16億(yi)(yi)高(gao)峰時(shi)，人(ren)均(jun)(jun)水(shui)(shui)(shui)資(zi)(zi)源(yuan)量(liang)將下降(jiang)到(dao)(dao)1760m3，全(quan)國(guo)將接近用水(shui)(shui)(shui)緊張國(guo)家的(de)(de)邊緣[4]。而且，我國(guo)水(shui)(shui)(shui)資(zi)(zi)源(yuan)的(de)(de)時(shi)空分(fen)布(bu)不(bu)均(jun)(jun)，南方多北方少，更加(jia)劇了局部水(shui)(shui)(shui)資(zi)(zi)源(yuan)的(de)(de)短缺狀況。北方干旱半干旱地區全(quan)年的(de)(de)降(jiang)水(shui)(shui)(shui)量(liang)主要集中(zhong)在(zai)7、8、9三個(ge)月，使(shi)得這些地區可(ke)以(yi)利(li)用的(de)(de)水(shui)(shui)(shui)資(zi)(zi)源(yuan)尤其(qi)顯得不(bu)足。
關(guan)鍵詞：城市污(wu)水(shui) 再生(sheng)利用 現狀 分析
1 概論
1.1 我(wo)國的供水狀況(kuang)
1.1.1 水資源狀況(kuang)
地球上(shang)總(zong)的(de)(de)水(shui)(shui)體積大約為14億km3，其中(zhong)(zhong)只有(you)2.5%是淡(dan)水(shui)(shui)，大部分(fen)以永久性(xing)冰或雪(xue)的(de)(de)形式封存(cun)于南極洲和(he)格(ge)陵(ling)蘭島，而可(ke)供人(ren)類(lei)利用(yong)(yong)的(de)(de)部分(fen)僅(jin)有(you)20萬km3 [1]。中(zhong)(zhong)國多年(nian)平均水(shui)(shui)資(zi)(zi)源(yuan)總(zong)量28100億m3，人(ren)均水(shui)(shui)資(zi)(zi)源(yuan)量2200m3，排在世界(jie)第88位，人(ren)均水(shui)(shui)資(zi)(zi)源(yuan)僅(jin)為世界(jie)人(ren)均的(de)(de)四(si)分(fen)之一[2~3]。根據(ju)“國際(ji)人(ren)口(kou)(kou)行動”對(dui)我國水(shui)(shui)資(zi)(zi)源(yuan)進(jin)行的(de)(de)總(zong)體評(ping)價(jia)，預計到21世紀中(zhong)(zhong)葉我國人(ren)口(kou)(kou)達到16億高峰時，人(ren)均水(shui)(shui)資(zi)(zi)源(yuan)量將下降到1760m3，全國將接近(jin)用(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)緊張國家的(de)(de)邊緣[4]。而且，我國水(shui)(shui)資(zi)(zi)源(yuan)的(de)(de)時空分(fen)布不均，南方多北(bei)(bei)方少(shao)，更加劇(ju)了局部水(shui)(shui)資(zi)(zi)源(yuan)的(de)(de)短缺(que)狀況。北(bei)(bei)方干(gan)旱半干(gan)旱地區(qu)全年(nian)的(de)(de)降水(shui)(shui)量主(zhu)要集中(zhong)(zhong)在7、8、9三個月，使得這些地區(qu)可(ke)以利用(yong)(yong)的(de)(de)水(shui)(shui)資(zi)(zi)源(yuan)尤其顯得不足。
1.1.2 供水現狀調查
從20世紀50年代中期到(dao)90年代末期，我國城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)年總供(gong)(gong)水(shui)量從9.6億(yi)m3增(zeng)加到(dao)470.5億(yi)m3，其中 工業 用(yong)水(shui)289.4億(yi)m3，占61.5%;城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)生活用(yong)水(shui)181m3，占38.5%。 目前 城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)年總供(gong)(gong)水(shui)量已(yi)達640億(yi)m3，2000年底(di)日供(gong)(gong)水(shui)能力達21.8億(yi)m3，供(gong)(gong)水(shui)普及(ji)率(lv)達到(dao)96.7%，估計(ji)目前城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)用(yong)水(shui)缺(que)水(shui)率(lv)平均為10%[5]。其中， 經濟 發展 比(bi)較(jiao)迅速的沿(yan)海地區缺(que)水(shui)嚴重的城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)供(gong)(gong)水(shui)情況如表1所示(shi)。
表(biao)1 沿海(hai)地區(qu)缺(que)水嚴重的(de)城(cheng)市分區(qu)統計表(biao)(不含(han)市轄縣)
|
分區 |
城市(shi)數(個) |
1990年城區人口(萬人) |
1990年供水量(liang)(億m3) |
2000年(nian)城區人口(kou)(萬(wan)人) |
2000年供水量(億(yi)m3) |
|
|
沿海(hai)地區合計 |
48 |
7133.44 |
129.76 |
9565.50 |
153.54 |
|
|
北方片 |
環渤海區 |
25 |
4087.59 |
55.52 |
4760.30 |
60.13 |
|
蘇(su)滬區 |
9 |
1575.52 |
48.59 |
2122.10 |
55.17 |
|
|
小計 |
34 |
5663.11 |
104.11 |
6882.30 |
115.3 |
|
|
南方片 |
浙閩區 |
5 |
488.20 |
8.72 |
868.20 |
10.74 |
|
兩(liang)廣區 |
7 |
908.60 |
16.0 |
1719.50 |
22.21 |
|
|
海南 |
2 |
73.33 |
0.93 |
95.50 |
5.29 |
|
|
小計 |
14 |
1470.13 |
25.65 |
2683.20 |
38.24 |
|
資源來源：根據水(shui)利部1993、2000年關于我國(guo)城市缺水(shui)情況的報告(整理)
1.1.3 各用(yong)水方向的(de)用(yong)量(liang)及比例情況
城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)工(gong)(gong)業(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)由工(gong)(gong)業(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)規模(mo)大(da)小和(he)工(gong)(gong)業(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)行(xing)業(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)結構確(que)定。工(gong)(gong)業(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)中(zhong)火電是(shi)第(di)一大(da)部門，占工(gong)(gong)業(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)量(liang)(liang)(liang)的(de)1/4左(zuo)右，其(qi)次(ci)是(shi)造紙、化(hua)工(gong)(gong)、冶金(jin)、食品4個行(xing)業(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)。主要工(gong)(gong)業(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)行(xing)業(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)單位產品用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)量(liang)(liang)(liang)見表(biao)2。(其(qi)中(zhong)包括市(shi)(shi)政環境用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)、商(shang)業(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)、辦公、事(shi)業(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)(ye)單位用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)和(he)居民(min)生(sheng)活(huo)(huo)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)等)近年(nian)(nian)來，隨著我國城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)人(ren)(ren)(ren)口增(zeng)加和(he)生(sheng)活(huo)(huo)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)平(ping)提高，生(sheng)活(huo)(huo)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)急劇增(zeng)長，全國城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)生(sheng)活(huo)(huo)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)年(nian)(nian)平(ping)均(jun)增(zeng)長速度為3～5%。我國不同城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)規模(mo)城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)生(sheng)活(huo)(huo)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)量(liang)(liang)(liang)見表(biao)3。從表(biao)3可以看(kan)出：特大(da)、大(da)城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)生(sheng)活(huo)(huo)綜合用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)量(liang)(liang)(liang)在(zai)177～260.8L/人(ren)(ren)(ren)•d之(zhi)間;中(zhong)、小城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)生(sheng)活(huo)(huo)綜合用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)量(liang)(liang)(liang)在(zai)136～208L/人(ren)(ren)(ren)•d之(zhi)間;北方城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)量(liang)(liang)(liang)明顯低于(yu)南方城(cheng)市(shi)(shi);居民(min)生(sheng)活(huo)(huo)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)占綜合用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)的(de)50.5%～79.2%。2000年(nian)(nian)底全國城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)平(ping)均(jun)生(sheng)活(huo)(huo)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)量(liang)(liang)(liang)為220.2L/人(ren)(ren)(ren)•d。
當前工(gong)業(ye)用(yong)水占城(cheng)市供水總量的61.5%，到(dao)2030年(nian)將占68～73%，表明城(cheng)市水資源利用(yong)結(jie)構(gou)總體來說(shuo)是(shi)從生(sheng)產(chan)、生(sheng)活(huo)并重型向生(sheng)產(chan)主(zhu)導型轉換，因此，注重城(cheng)市工(gong)業(ye)節(jie)水是(shi)減緩(huan)城(cheng)市水資源供需矛盾(dun)的關鍵。
表2 主(zhu)要行業單位產(chan)品用水量(liang)[5]
|
產品名稱 |
單位 |
用水(shui)量 |
產品名稱 |
單位 |
用水量 |
產品(pin)名稱 |
單位 |
用(yong)水量 |
|
棉紡(fang)織 |
m3/100m |
2.5 |
紙漿造紙 |
m3/t |
210 |
鋼 |
m3/t |
4 |
|
毛紡(fang)織 |
m3/100m |
31 |
紙 |
m3/t |
50 |
軋鋼 |
m3/t |
5.5 |
|
紡織 |
m3/100m |
3.7 |
豬(zhu)屠宰加(jia)工(gong) |
m3/頭 |
0.55 |
醫藥 |
m3/萬元 |
130~250 |
|
麻織 |
m3/100m |
760 |
牛(niu)屠宰加工 |
m3/頭 |
1.20 |
彩色顯像管 |
m3/只 |
0.6 |
|
粘膠 |
m3/100m |
580 |
羊屠宰加工 |
m3/只 |
0.40 |
機械 |
m3/萬元 |
45 |
|
滌綸 |
m3/100m |
47 |
皮革加工 |
m3/張(zhang) |
0.84 |
平板玻璃 |
m3/箱 |
0.82 |
|
印染 |
m3/100m |
2 |
硫酸 |
m3/t |
20~70 |
水泥 |
m3/t |
0.8 |
|
味精 |
m3/100m |
150 |
氯堿 |
m3/t |
15~20 |
載重汽車(che) |
m3/輛 |
18~30 |
|
湎精 |
m3/t |
42 |
染料 |
m3/t |
40~50 |
轎車 |
m3/輛(liang) |
10~20 |
|
啤酒 |
m3/t |
42 |
三膠 |
m3/t |
145 |
火力發(fa)電(dian) |
m3/SGW |
1 |
|
罐頭 |
m3/t |
65 |
煉鐵 |
m3/t |
8 |
表3 我(wo)國(guo)不同城市規模生活用水(shui)量(liang)(單位: t/人(ren)•d) [6]
|
北(bei) 方 |
南 方 |
|||||||||
|
城市 規模 |
綜合 水量 |
居住 用水量 |
比例 (%) |
公共 用水量 |
比例 (%) |
綜合 水量 |
居住 用水量 |
比例 (%) |
公共 用水量 |
比例 (%) |
|
特大 |
177 |
102.9 |
58.1 |
74.2 |
41.9 |
260.8 |
166.8 |
63.9 |
94.0 |
36.1 |
|
大 |
179 |
98.8 |
55.2 |
80.4 |
44.8 |
204 |
103.0 |
50.5 |
101.0 |
49.5 |
|
中 |
136 |
96.8 |
71.2 |
39.9 |
28.8 |
208 |
148.9 |
71.6 |
59.1 |
28.4 |
|
小 |
138 |
79.3 |
57.5 |
58.7 |
42.5 |
187.6 |
148.5 |
79.2 |
39.1 |
20.8 |
1.1.4 制水和輸水成本及(ji)供水價(jia)格
為了應(ying)對水(shui)(shui)資(zi)源(yuan)供需日益(yi)尖銳的(de)矛盾，傳(chuan)統上(shang)人們通(tong)常采用(yong)開(kai)發地表(biao)水(shui)(shui)，開(kai)采地下(xia)水(shui)(shui)資(zi)源(yuan)，以及跨流域(yu)調水(shui)(shui)作為傳(chuan)統解(jie)決(jue)方案。在(zai)傳(chuan)統方式之外，開(kai)發非傳(chuan)統水(shui)(shui)源(yuan)是解(jie)決(jue)水(shui)(shui)資(zi)源(yuan)短缺 問題 的(de)另(ling)一條(tiao)行(xing)之有效(xiao)的(de)途徑(jing)，在(zai)非傳(chuan)統水(shui)(shui)源(yuan)中，污水(shui)(shui)再生(sheng)利用(yong)具有廣闊的(de) 應(ying)用(yong) 前景[7]。
首先(xian)，在(zai)未充(chong)分利(li)用城市污(wu)水(shui)的水(shui)資源能力前，不應(ying)上長(chang)距離(li)調水(shui)和海水(shui)淡(dan)化(hua)項目。目前城市污(wu)水(shui)處(chu)理(二級處(chu)理)投資大(da)約(yue)在(zai)900～1400元(yuan)(yuan)(yuan)/(m3•d)，在(zai)此基礎上的再生處(chu)理約(yue)400～600元(yuan)(yuan)(yuan)/(m3•d)。加上管網配(pei)套(tao)總(zong)計600～1000元(yuan)(yuan)(yuan)/(m3•d)。到“十(shi)五”末期形成40億立方米水(shui)源的投資大(da)約(yue)在(zai)100億元(yuan)(yuan)(yuan)左右。而形成同(tong)樣規(gui)模的長(chang)距離(li)引水(shui)，以大(da)連引英入連為例[8]，則(ze)需(xu)600億元(yuan)(yuan)(yuan)左右，海水(shui)淡(dan)化(hua)則(ze)需(xu)1000億元(yuan)(yuan)(yuan)左右，可見污(wu)水(shui)回用在(zai)經濟上具有明顯的優(you)勢。
其次(ci)，在(zai)(zai)適用的地方使(shi)用再生(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)可以(yi)使(shi)供需(xu)雙(shuang)方獲利(li)。國內(nei)外同(tong)類經驗與測算表(biao)明，對城市污水(shui)(shui)(shui)廠(chang)二級處(chu)理(li)出(chu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)，采用混凝-沉(chen)淀-過濾-消(xiao)毒技術處(chu)理(li)，在(zai)(zai)管網(wang)長度適宜條(tiao)件下，每(mei)日10 000 m3回用量以(yi)上工程(cheng)的噸水(shui)(shui)(shui)投資(zi)都應在(zai)(zai)800元(yuan)(yuan)以(yi)下，處(chu)理(li)成本0.7元(yuan)(yuan)以(yi)下，遠(yuan)低于城市水(shui)(shui)(shui)價(jia)。按現在(zai)(zai)國內(nei)外通行(xing)慣例，中水(shui)(shui)(shui)價(jia)格(ge)一般為自(zi)(zi)來水(shui)(shui)(shui)價(jia)格(ge)的50%~70%。以(yi)長春市為例，長春市水(shui)(shui)(shui)價(jia)4.17元(yuan)(yuan)/m3，中水(shui)(shui)(shui)價(jia)格(ge)以(yi)自(zi)(zi)來水(shui)(shui)(shui)價(jia)格(ge)的中值60%計，應為2.5元(yuan)(yuan)，需(xu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)方噸水(shui)(shui)(shui)節省1.67元(yuan)(yuan)，供水(shui)(shui)(shui)方噸水(shui)(shui)(shui)獲利(li)1.8元(yuan)(yuan)左右[9]。供水(shui)(shui)(shui)方兩年內(nei)可收回投資(zi)，供需(xu)雙(shuang)方經濟效(xiao)益都十分顯著。
1.2 國外(wai)的污(wu)水再生(sheng)利用
20世紀(ji)上半(ban)葉在水(shui)和(he)廢(fei)水(shui)處理的(de)(de)(de)物理、化(hua)學(xue)和(he)生物方面(mian)的(de)(de)(de)技術進步(bu)，導致了“污(wu)水(shui)再生利用 時(shi)代 ”的(de)(de)(de)到來[10]。國際上，美國、日本、以色列、南非、澳大利亞(ya)、俄羅斯等國早已(yi)開展污(wu)水(shui)經(jing)處理后回用的(de)(de)(de)工作[11]。
1.2.1 美國(guo)模(mo)式
美國的(de)城(cheng)(cheng)市污水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)處理等(deng)級基本上(shang)都在二級以上(shang)，處理率達(da)到(dao)100%。自1920年在亞利(li)桑那州修建(jian)第一(yi)個(ge)分(fen)質供水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)系統(tong)用(yong)于澆灌(guan)綠地(di)(di)、沖廁(ce)、洗車(che)、冷卻水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)和建(jian)筑等(deng)以來(lai)，美國的(de)城(cheng)(cheng)市污水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)(zai)生(sheng)利(li)用(yong)已經從試驗 研究 階段進(jin)入(ru)生(sheng)產應用(yong)階段，再(zai)(zai)生(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)作為一(yi)種合法的(de)替(ti)代水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)源，正(zheng)在得到(dao)越來(lai)越廣泛的(de)利(li)用(yong)，成(cheng)為城(cheng)(cheng)市水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)資源的(de)重要組成(cheng)部(bu)分(fen)，城(cheng)(cheng)市再(zai)(zai)生(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)利(li)用(yong)設施的(de)數量和規模隨(sui)之迅(xun)速增(zeng)長(chang)。美國再(zai)(zai)生(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)利(li)用(yong)的(de)范圍涉(she)及農業(ye)、工業(ye)、地(di)(di)下水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)回灌(guan)和娛(yu)樂等(deng)方(fang)面，其(qi)比例大致為62%用(yong)于各種灌(guan)溉和景觀，31.5%用(yong)于工業(ye)，5%用(yong)于地(di)(di)下回灌(guan)，1.5%用(yong)于娛(yu)樂、漁業(ye)等(deng)。
美(mei)國再(zai)生水(shui)利用(yong)模式的突(tu)出特(te)點(dian)是集中處理(li)回用(yong)、很少直(zhi)接用(yong)于城市生活雜用(yong)。這大(da)概與美(mei)國市政管網和污(wu)水(shui)處理(li)廠普及、生活用(yong)水(shui)水(shui)質標準嚴(yan)(yan)格有關。再(zai)生水(shui)利用(yong)工程主要分布于水(shui)資(zi)源短(duan)缺，地下水(shui)嚴(yan)(yan)重超(chao)采(cai)的西南部和中南部的加利福尼亞、亞利桑(sang)那、德(de)克薩(sa)斯和佛羅里達(da)等州。
美國的(de)(de)回(hui)用(yong)(yong)水(shui)標(biao)準(zhun)各州(zhou)不(bu)(bu)一，并且(qie)針對(dui)不(bu)(bu)同(tong)的(de)(de)回(hui)用(yong)(yong)對(dui)象所制定(ding)(ding)的(de)(de)標(biao)準(zhun)也不(bu)(bu)一樣，但標(biao)準(zhun)都很嚴格(ge)。加州(zhou)執行(xing)的(de)(de)是(shi)22號條(tiao)例(Title22)，克羅拉多(duo)州(zhou)執行(xing)的(de)(de)是(shi)84號規范(Regulation#84)，這些文(wen)件都詳細(xi)地(di)規定(ding)(ding)了(le)(le)不(bu)(bu)同(tong)回(hui)用(yong)(yong)對(dui)象的(de)(de)水(shui)質標(biao)準(zhun)，如：用(yong)(yong)于(yu)農業灌溉、工業冷卻(que)、市政景觀等(deng)[12]。而且(qie)，美國環保局會同(tong)有(you)關方(fang)面于(yu)1992年提出(chu)水(shui)回(hui)用(yong)(yong)建議指(zhi)導(dao)書，包括了(le)(le)廢(fei)水(shui)回(hui)用(yong)(yong)各個(ge)方(fang)面，回(hui)用(yong)(yong)處理(li)工藝、水(shui)質要(yao)求、監測(ce)項目與頻率、安全距離和(he)條(tiao)文(wen)說明(ming)，它對(dui)那些尚無法(fa)則可遵(zun)循的(de)(de)地(di)方(fang)提供了(le)(le)重要(yao)的(de)(de)指(zhi)導(dao)信(xin)息[13]。
水的(de)回用在(zai)美國經久不衰，值得(de)我們借鑒(jian)。下面再從幾個實例加(jia)以詳細(xi)說明。
(1) 回用于電廠冷卻系統
美國(guo)電(dian)(dian)廠(chang)(chang)冷卻(que)水(shui)(shui)(shui)是僅(jin)次于農業的(de)(de)主(zhu)要(yao)用水(shui)(shui)(shui)者，生(sheng)化后的(de)(de)城(cheng)市污(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)是可靠(kao)的(de)(de)冷卻(que)水(shui)(shui)(shui)水(shui)(shui)(shui)源(yuan)，在(zai)西(xi)南(nan)地區的(de)(de)幾個主(zhu)要(yao)發電(dian)(dian)廠(chang)(chang)，包(bao)括核發電(dian)(dian)廠(chang)(chang)，普遍使(shi)用處(chu)理(li)(li)后的(de)(de)城(cheng)市污(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)作為冷卻(que)水(shui)(shui)(shui)。在(zai)沙(sha)漠中(zhong)興建的(de)(de)賭城(cheng)拉(la)斯(si)維加斯(si)，有充足的(de)(de)電(dian)(dian)力供應，該市二個電(dian)(dian)廠(chang)(chang)科拉(la)拉(la)電(dian)(dian)廠(chang)(chang)和森路士(shi)電(dian)(dian)廠(chang)(chang)的(de)(de)冷卻(que)水(shui)(shui)(shui)使(shi)用拉(la)斯(si)維加斯(si)市污(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)廠(chang)(chang)出水(shui)(shui)(shui)。污(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)廠(chang)(chang)1981年投產(chan)，規模24萬(wan)m3/d。二級(ji)處(chu)理(li)(li)出水(shui)(shui)(shui)BOD<3mg/L，SS<;30mg/L。深度處(chu)理(li)(li)BOD<7mg/L，SS<7mg/L，濁度<1º，TP<0.5mg/L，該水(shui)(shui)(shui)質滿足電(dian)(dian)廠(chang)(chang)冷卻(que)水(shui)(shui)(shui)質要(yao)求。污(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)回用解決了(le)沙(sha)漠城(cheng)市的(de)(de)供水(shui)(shui)(shui)問題(ti)。
(2) 鋼廠(chang)回用(yong)
位于馬里蘭州巴爾的摩(mo)海口的伯利衡鋼(gang)廠(chang)使(shi)用(yong)背河污(wu)水(shui)(shui)廠(chang)40萬m3/d再生(sheng)水(shui)(shui)已有40年 歷史(shi) 。背河污(wu)水(shui)(shui)廠(chang)規模(mo)68萬m3/d，曝氣池(chi)(chi)停(ting)留時(shi)間(jian)6小時(shi)，濾(lv)池(chi)(chi)為(wei)移動罩濾(lv)池(chi)(chi)，濾(lv)后水(shui)(shui)濁度5以下。用(yong)城市污(wu)水(shui)(shui)廠(chang)再生(sheng)水(shui)(shui)的處理流程(cheng)為(wei)：
(3) 美國21世紀水廠
位于加州橘縣水(shui)(shui)管(guan)理區，命名為21世(shi)紀(ji)(ji)水(shui)(shui)廠(chang)。1965年(nian)(nian)開(kai)始研究將深(shen)度(du)處理出(chu)水(shui)(shui)回(hui)灌地(di)下(xia)，以阻止海水(shui)(shui)入(ru)侵(qin)，1972年(nian)(nian)興建有關工(gong)程，1976年(nian)(nian)投入(ru)運(yun)行(xing)，再生工(gong)藝如(ru)下(xia)。21世(shi)紀(ji)(ji)水(shui)(shui)廠(chang)再生水(shui)(shui)通過23座多套(tao)管(guan)井(jing)回(hui)注(zhu)地(di)下(xia)含水(shui)(shui)層出(chu)水(shui)(shui)TOC<2mg/L，TN<10mg/L，電導率100μm/cm，濁(zhuo)度(du)0.1 NTU。出(chu)水(shui)(shui)中不得檢出(chu)大腸(chang)桿(gan)菌。回(hui)注(zhu)水(shui)(shui)總量檢制在9.5萬m3/d。處理流程如(ru)下(xia)。
(4) 城市綠地澆灌(guan)
美國加(jia)州(zhou)的(de)(de)(de)農灌(guan)(guan)用再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)量很(hen)大(da)，占回(hui)用水(shui)(shui)(shui)量的(de)(de)(de)60%以此(ci)解除該地(di)(di)區干旱威脅。在(zai)城鎮，大(da)片綠地(di)(di)、樹木、高爾夫球場、公園，也是靠再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)澆灌(guan)(guan)，這部分水(shui)(shui)(shui)占16%。到美國考察，在(zai)污水(shui)(shui)(shui)廠(chang)內(nei)，在(zai)市區街道(dao)旁(pang)，在(zai)居民(min)庭(ting)院里，隨處可見(jian)一些管(guan)道(dao)上(shang)標(biao)有Reclaimed Water(回(hui)收水(shui)(shui)(shui)、再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)、中水(shui)(shui)(shui))字(zi)樣，居民(min)每天都(dou)要(yao)使用再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)澆灌(guan)(guan)住宅前后(hou)草地(di)(di)，污水(shui)(shui)(shui)廠(chang)經常(chang)進出(chu)標(biao)有再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)字(zi)樣的(de)(de)(de)拉(la)水(shui)(shui)(shui)車。污水(shui)(shui)(shui)的(de)(de)(de)再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)回(hui)用已被(bei)居民(min)接受。加(jia)州(zhou)規(gui)定的(de)(de)(de)用于糧食作(zuo)物(wu)灌(guan)(guan)溉(gai)的(de)(de)(de)再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)處理流程(cheng)如下。
1.2.2日本模式
日(ri)本(ben)是(shi)個面積窄小(xiao)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)島國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)，河流(liu)急湍入(ru)海，沒有大江大湖可作跨流(liu)域調水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)之用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)，那么(me)日(ri)本(ben)靠什么(me)支撐了(le)六(liu)十年(nian)(nian)代的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)經(jing)濟復興(xing)呢，靠的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)就是(shi)污水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)回用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)，他們叫下水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)處(chu)理水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)再(zai)利(li)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)，在(zai)各大城市(shi)(shi)創建(jian)(jian)(jian)并保留使(shi)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)至(zhi)今(jin)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)“工業(ye)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)道”，縱穿全(quan)(quan)市(shi)(shi)，形成和自來水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)管道并存的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)又一條城市(shi)(shi)動脈。1955年(nian)(nian)日(ri)本(ben)開始再(zai)生水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)利(li)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)，1978年(nian)(nian)左右受節(jie)能政策(ce)調整和城市(shi)(shi)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)荒的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de) 影響(xiang) ，從(cong)中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)央到地(di)方(fang)制定了(le)中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)利(li)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)指導計劃，從(cong)1980年(nian)(nian)開始以東京為首(shou)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)利(li)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)設(she)(she)施(shi)建(jian)(jian)(jian)設(she)(she)迅速發展。到1983年(nian)(nian)3月底，全(quan)(quan)國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)有中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)項目(mu)473個，總(zong)回用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)量約6.6萬(wan)m3/d。近年(nian)(nian)來，平均(jun)每年(nian)(nian)建(jian)(jian)(jian)設(she)(she)130處(chu)。到1993年(nian)(nian)全(quan)(quan)國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)有1963套中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)利(li)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)設(she)(she)施(shi)投入(ru)使(shi)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)，其(qi)中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)東京都建(jian)(jian)(jian)設(she)(she)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)利(li)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)設(she)(she)施(shi)數量約占(zhan)全(quan)(quan)國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)44%，福岡地(di)區占(zhan)19%。中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)使(shi)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)量為27.7萬(wan)m3/d，占(zhan)全(quan)(quan)國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)生活用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)量的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)0.7%。截止1993年(nian)(nian)，使(shi)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)雨水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)作中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)設(she)(she)施(shi)全(quan)(quan)日(ri)本(ben)共有528處(chu)，水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)量為500萬(wan)m3/a。其(qi)中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)東京的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)雨水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)利(li)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)設(she)(she)施(shi)占(zhan)全(quan)(quan)國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)65%，福岡占(zhan)7%。至(zhi)1996年(nian)(nian)，全(quan)(quan)國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)有中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)設(she)(she)施(shi)2100套投入(ru)使(shi)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)，用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)量達32.4萬(wan)m3/d，占(zhan)全(quan)(quan)國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)生活用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)量的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)0.8%。再(zai)生水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)41%被用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)于工業(ye)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)，32%被用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)于環境用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)，8%用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)于農(nong)業(ye)灌(guan)溉。日(ri)本(ben)是(shi)工業(ye)國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)，主要(yao)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)于工業(ye)，近幾年(nian)(nian)增加(jia)了(le)環境用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)，它用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)于農(nong)灌(guan)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)比例(li)遠小(xiao)于美(mei)國(guo)(guo)(guo)(guo)。
在(zai)日(ri)本，城(cheng)市(shi)污水(shui)集中(zhong)處(chu)理(li)(li)回(hui)用(yong)(yong)和分散處(chu)理(li)(li)回(hui)用(yong)(yong)都(dou)大(da)量存在(zai)，然而其最突出(chu)的特(te)點有(you)兩個：(1)分散處(chu)理(li)(li)并回(hui)用(yong)(yong)于城(cheng)市(shi)生活雜(za)用(yong)(yong)的再(zai)(zai)生水(shui)所占的比例很大(da)，(2)獨特(te)的工業水(shui)道，我們稱之為日(ri)本模式。對工業用(yong)(yong)水(shui)道的水(shui)質(zhi)各(ge)個城(cheng)市(shi)都(dou)有(you)不同的標準(zhun)，日(ri)本市(shi)政雜(za)用(yong)(yong)水(shui)和景觀用(yong)(yong)水(shui)水(shui)質(zhi)標準(zhun)見表4。下面(mian)是日(ri)本再(zai)(zai)生水(shui)利用(yong)(yong)的幾個實例及其處(chu)理(li)(li)流程。
1. 日本東(dong)(dong)京都江東(dong)(dong)地(di)區工業用(yong)水(shui)(shui)使用(yong)城市污水(shui)(shui)廠再(zai)生(sheng)水(shui)(shui)的處理(li)流程(cheng)如下：
2. 日本江崎市(shi)工業用水使(shi)用城市(shi)污水廠再生(sheng)水的處理流程如(ru)下。
3. 東京(jing)千代田區某樓使(shi)用再生水回用于生活雜用水的處理流程。
4. 東京港區某(mou)樓使用再生(sheng)水回用于生(sheng)活(huo)雜(za)用水的處理流(liu)程。
5. 日本川崎市的“親水”再生利用于景觀水體(ti)的處理流程如(ru)下。
表4 市政雜用水和景觀游覽用水水質標準[13]
|
水(shui)質指(zhi)標(biao) |
日本下水(shui)道循環利用、市政雜用水(shui)標準 |
建設省景觀回用(yong)水(shui)標準 |
|||
|
衛生間 |
景觀 |
游覽 |
景觀 |
游覽 |
|
|
大腸菌值(zhi)（個/ml） |
10 |
不(bu)檢出 |
不檢出 |
10 |
50/100ml |
|
BOD5(mg/l) |
10 |
10 |
3/100ml |
||
|
pH |
5.8~8.6 |
5.8~8.6 |
5.8~8.6 |
5.8~8.6 |
5.8~8.6 |
|
渾濁度(du)（度(du)） |
10 |
10 |
5 |
||
|
臭 |
無(wu)不(bu)快感 |
無不快(kuai)感 |
無不(bu)快感(gan) |
無不(bu)快感 |
無不快感 |
|
色度（度） |
|||||
|
余氯(mg/l) |
2 |
0.4 |
|||
|
外觀 |
無不快感 |
無不快感 |
無不快感 |
無不快(kuai)感 |
無不快感 |
日本政(zheng)府對供(gong)水(shui)設(she)施(shi)建(jian)設(she)和在水(shui)價(jia)上有較高的(de)(de)(de)補(bu)貼，水(shui)價(jia)對于(yu)中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)水(shui)的(de)(de)(de)建(jian)設(she)影響并(bing)不(bu)是主要(yao)的(de)(de)(de);而(er)且(qie)中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)水(shui)對國(guo)家(jia)總體上節水(shui)的(de)(de)(de)貢獻(xian)并(bing)不(bu)大(da)(da)，不(bu)超過(guo)全國(guo)生活用(yong)水(shui)量的(de)(de)(de)1%，微觀經濟效益也并(bing)不(bu)明顯。對于(yu)中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)水(shui)建(jian)設(she)國(guo)家(jia)并(bing)無硬性的(de)(de)(de) 法律 規(gui)(gui)定，公眾也未普(pu)遍接受(shou)。盡管如此，每年仍有上百套(tao)的(de)(de)(de)中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)水(shui)建(jian)成(cheng)。這是因為：水(shui)荒給(gei) 社會 留下了(le)深刻的(de)(de)(de)影響，從局部地(di)(di)區(qu)來(lai)講，人們希望提高供(gong)水(shui)的(de)(de)(de)保障程度，擺脫水(shui)荒的(de)(de)(de)影響。同(tong)時，有一(yi)(yi)些地(di)(di)區(qu)，地(di)(di)方政(zheng)府明文規(gui)(gui)定要(yao)求建(jian)設(she)中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)水(shui)。另有一(yi)(yi)些地(di)(di)區(qu)是面臨(lin)環境對其污水(shui)的(de)(de)(de)外排標準(zhun)比(bi)較高，必須進行三級(ji)處理(li)，出水(shui)經過(guo)消毒即可回用(yong)。為了(le)擴大(da)(da)規(gui)(gui)模降低中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)水(shui)的(de)(de)(de)成(cheng)本，目前中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)水(shui)正在以(yi)新建(jian)小區(qu)為重點，普(pu)及中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)水(shui)建(jian)設(she)。而(er)一(yi)(yi)些大(da)(da)城市如東(dong)京，則建(jian)設(she)了(le)全地(di)(di)區(qu)的(de)(de)(de)城市中(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)(zhong)水(shui)系(xi)統[14]。
1.2.3 以色列模式
以(yi)色(se)列(lie)再生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)利(li)用(yong)最突(tu)出(chu)的(de)(de)特點是它已(yi)經把再生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)作為(wei)國(guo)家水(shui)(shui)量平衡的(de)(de)重要(yao)組成部分。以(yi)色(se)列(lie)長期(qi)缺水(shui)(shui)，認(ren)為(wei)把城市(shi)污水(shui)(shui)作為(wei)非傳統(tong)的(de)(de)水(shui)(shui)資源加以(yi)開發(fa)利(li)用(yong)是唯一的(de)(de)出(chu)路，也是容易實現的(de)(de)，早在20世紀(ji)60年代，就把回(hui)用(yong)所有污水(shui)(shui)列(lie)為(wei)一項國(guo)家政策，規定：廢水(shui)(shui)如(ru)果沒有用(yong)盡，不可采用(yong)海水(shui)(shui)淡(dan)化(hua);城市(shi)的(de)(de)每一滴水(shui)(shui)至少應回(hui)用(yong)一次。污水(shui)(shui)再生(sheng)(sheng)成本大約是海水(shui)(shui)談化(hua)的(de)(de)1/3~1/5，這種 經濟 性使人們認(ren)識到必須(xu)優(you)失利(li)用(yong)污水(shui)(shui)。截至1987年，該國(guo)已(yi)建造了210個市(shi)政再生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)利(li)用(yong)工程，100%的(de)(de)生(sheng)(sheng)活污水(shui)(shui)和(he)72%的(de)(de)市(shi)政污水(shui)(shui)已(yi)經回(hui)用(yong)，回(hui)用(yong)規模(mo)最大為(wei)20萬(wan)m3/d，最小為(wei)27m3/d，一般介于0.5~1萬(wan)m3/d之間。以(yi)色(se)列(lie)42%的(de)(de)再生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)直(zhi)接回(hui)用(yong)于灌溉，30%回(hui)灌地(di)下(xia)和(he)排入河(he)道供間接回(hui)用(yong)，其余的(de)(de)用(yong)于 工業 和(he)城市(shi)雜(za)用(yong)。回(hui)灌地(di)下(xia)的(de)(de)再抽出(chu)至管網系統(tong)，輸送到南(nan)部地(di)區(qu)，最南(nan)部地(di)區(qu)甚(shen)至將它作為(wei)飲用(yong)水(shui)(shui)源。
在(zai)以色列(lie)(lie)，由于水(shui)(shui)資源異常(chang)短缺，因(yin)此污水(shui)(shui)回用(yong)(yong)量在(zai)總供水(shui)(shui)量中所占的比(bi)例很大， 目前 已超過了10%。具體回用(yong)(yong)量與(yu)供水(shui)(shui)量見(jian)表5。表6是(shi)以色列(lie)(lie)灌溉回用(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)水(shui)(shui)質(zhi)標(biao)準(zhun)。
表5 污水回(hui)用量(liang)占以色列全國總供水量(liang)的比例關系(104m3/a) [15]
|
年份 |
1985 |
1990/1991 |
2000 |
2010 |
|
全國總供水量 |
205000 |
145000 |
209000 |
224000 |
|
農業用水(shui)量 |
149000 |
77000 |
126000 |
125000 |
|
市政、生活用(yong)水(shui)量 |
44500 |
56000 |
68500 |
77000 |
|
廢水回收量(liang) |
21500 |
26000 |
38000 |
52000 |
|
農業上污水回用(yong)量 |
11000 |
18800 |
35000 |
45000 |
|
污水(shui)回用(yong)量(liang)占(zhan)總供水(shui)量(liang)的比例（％） |
5.4 |
13.0 |
14.6 |
20.1 |
表6 以色列灌(guan)溉回用(yong)水水質(zhi)標準(zhun)[19]
|
灌溉項(xiang)目(mu) |
BOD(mg/L) |
SS(mg/L) |
溶解氧(mg/L) |
大腸菌值(zhi)(個/100mL) |
余氯(mg/L) |
其它(ta)要求 |
|
干飼料、纖維、甜菜(cai)、谷物、森林 |
60 |
50 |
0.5 |
限制噴灌 |
||
|
青飼料、干(gan)果 |
45 |
40 |
0.5 |
|||
|
果園、熟食蔬菜、高爾夫球場 |
35 |
30 |
0.5 |
100 |
0.15 |
|
|
其(qi)它農作物、公園、草地 |
15 |
15 |
0.5 |
12 |
0.5 |
需(xu)過濾處(chu)理 |
|
直接食用(yong)作物 |
即使是再生水也不能用于灌溉
|
|||||
其它部分國家的(de)再(zai)生水(shui)利(li)用(yong)實例見(jian)表(biao)7，此外阿(a)根廷、巴西、智利(li)、秘魯、科威特(te)、塞浦路斯、突尼斯等國都開(kai)始利(li)用(yong)再(zai)生水(shui)，用(yong)于農業灌溉的(de)比(bi)例最大。
表7 部分國(guo)家再生水利用實例[17][20]
|
國家 |
城市 |
再生水利用規模（104m3/d） |
回用對象 |
|
俄羅斯 |
莫斯(si)科 |
55.5 |
工業 |
|
波蘭 |
費羅茨(ci)瓦夫 |
17 |
灌(guan)溉、地下(xia)水回灌(guan) |
|
墨西哥(ge) |
聯(lian)邦區 |
15.5 |
澆灌花園 |
|
沙特阿(a)拉伯(bo) |
利雅得 |
12 |
石油提煉(lian)、灌溉 |
|
印度 |
孟買 |
0.015~0.025 |
商業(ye)大(da)樓雜用水 |
|
南非 |
約翰內斯(si)堡 |
5 |
電(dian)廠冷卻(que)水 |
|
納米比亞 |
溫(wen)得和克 |
0.045 |
飲用水 |
1.3 國內的污水再生水利(li)用
1.3.1污水資(zi)源 分析
經濟建(jian)設(she)和城(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)化的快速 發展(zhan) ，使城(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)污(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)排(pai)放(fang)量(liang)增長很快。目(mu)前(qian)，我國城(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)污(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)年排(pai)放(fang)量(liang)已達(da)414億立方米，已建(jian)污(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)處理(li)(li)(li)設(she)施400余(yu)座，城(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)污(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)處理(li)(li)(li)率(lv)達(da)到30%，二級(ji)處理(li)(li)(li)率(lv)達(da)到15%。根據“十五”計劃綱要(yao)(yao)要(yao)(yao)求，到2005年 中國 城(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)污(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)處理(li)(li)(li)規模(mo)將超過4 000萬(wan)m3/d，城(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)污(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)集中處理(li)(li)(li)率(lv)將達(da)到45%，這就給(gei)城(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)污(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)再生利(li)用創(chuang)造了基(ji)本條(tiao)件。
1.3.2污水(shui)再生利用的適用性
經濟的(de)(de)發展和城(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)化(hua)進程(cheng)的(de)(de)加快(kuai)，以及水(shui)污(wu)染 問題 的(de)(de)日益(yi)嚴重，也導致我國(guo)的(de)(de)城(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)缺水(shui)問題十分突出。據統計，我國(guo)目前668座城(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)中(zhong)有400多(duo)座城(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)存(cun)在不同程(cheng)度缺水(shui)，其中(zhong)136座城(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)嚴重缺水(shui)，日缺水(shui)量達1600萬(wan)立(li)方(fang)米(mi)，年(nian)缺水(shui)量60億(yi)立(li)方(fang)米(mi)，由于缺水(shui)每(mei)年(nian) 影響 工(gong)(gong)業產值2000多(duo)億(yi)元人民幣[4~5]。嚴重缺水(shui)城(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)主要(yao)集(ji)中(zhong)在北方(fang)，占(zhan)(zhan)全(quan)國(guo)的(de)(de)2/3，占(zhan)(zhan)南方(fang)城(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)總(zong)(zong)數的(de)(de)30%;南方(fang)占(zhan)(zhan)全(quan)國(guo)的(de)(de)1/3，占(zhan)(zhan)南方(fang)城(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)總(zong)(zong)數的(de)(de)17.8%。北方(fang)缺水(shui)城(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)中(zhong)主要(yao)是(shi)資源型缺水(shui)，即(ji)城(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)發展的(de)(de)需水(shui)量超過當(dang)地水(shui)資源承受能力(li);南方(fang)缺水(shui)城(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)中(zhong)除沿海少數城(cheng)(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)外(wai)，基本(ben)上(shang)屬于工(gong)(gong)程(cheng)型或(huo)(huo)污(wu)染型缺水(shui)，即(ji)因工(gong)(gong)程(cheng)設施不足或(huo)(huo)水(shui)質受污(wu)染造成(cheng)。
一(yi)(yi)方面(mian)城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)缺水(shui)(shui)(shui)十分(fen)嚴(yan)重，一(yi)(yi)方面(mian)大量(liang)(liang)的(de)(de)城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)污水(shui)(shui)(shui)經治理后又白(bai)白(bai)流失，浪(lang)費了大量(liang)(liang)的(de)(de)可(ke)利用資源(yuan)(yuan)(yuan)。和(he)城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)供水(shui)(shui)(shui)量(liang)(liang)幾(ji)乎相等(deng)的(de)(de)城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)污水(shui)(shui)(shui)中(zhong)，只(zhi)有0.1%的(de)(de)污染物質，遠(yuan)低于(yu)(yu)海水(shui)(shui)(shui)中(zhong)3.5%的(de)(de)量(liang)(liang)值。水(shui)(shui)(shui)在(zai) 自然(ran) 界中(zhong)是(shi)唯一(yi)(yi)不可(ke)替(ti)代的(de)(de)、也是(shi)唯一(yi)(yi)可(ke)重復(fu)利用的(de)(de)資源(yuan)(yuan)(yuan)。城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)污水(shui)(shui)(shui)就近可(ke)得(de)，易(yi)于(yu)(yu)收集(ji)，再(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)處理比(bi)海水(shui)(shui)(shui)淡化成本低廉，基建投資比(bi)遠(yuan)距(ju)離引水(shui)(shui)(shui)經濟[18~19]。城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)污水(shui)(shui)(shui)可(ke)以作為(wei)(wei)可(ke)靠的(de)(de)第(di)二水(shui)(shui)(shui)源(yuan)(yuan)(yuan)，這已成為(wei)(wei)當(dang)今世界各國在(zai)解(jie)決缺水(shui)(shui)(shui)問題時的(de)(de)共識。但是(shi)，由(you)于(yu)(yu)污水(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)利用的(de)(de)復(fu)雜性，在(zai)我國開展污水(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)利用必(bi)須注(zhu)意(yi)以下幾(ji)個(ge)方面(mian)的(de)(de)工作：
第一，制定污(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)利(li)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)系統(tong)的(de)(de)(de)總體規(gui)(gui)劃。由(you)于再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)的(de)(de)(de)需求者通常比較分散，用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)量較小，因此(ci)鋪(pu)設再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)管(guan)(guan)(guan)道(dao)系統(tong)是推廣(guang)(guang)污(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)利(li)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)的(de)(de)(de)關鍵(jian)。為了保證(zheng)處理(li)后的(de)(de)(de)再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)能夠(gou)送到各個用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)戶，首先必須編制城市(shi)污(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)利(li)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)規(gui)(gui)劃，確(que)定污(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)深度(du)處理(li)的(de)(de)(de)規(gui)(gui)模、位置、再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)管(guan)(guan)(guan)道(dao)系統(tong)的(de)(de)(de)布(bu)局，以指導(dao)再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)廠和(he)再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)管(guan)(guan)(guan)道(dao)的(de)(de)(de)建設和(he)管(guan)(guan)(guan)理(li)。由(you)于以前的(de)(de)(de)道(dao)路和(he)市(shi)政(zheng)管(guan)(guan)(guan)道(dao)建設時(shi)未能預留(liu)再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)管(guan)(guan)(guan)道(dao)的(de)(de)(de)位置，或者即使(shi)可以安排再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)管(guan)(guan)(guan)道(dao)也需要破路才能施工，這便造(zao)成了推廣(guang)(guang)城市(shi)污(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)(sheng)利(li)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)的(de)(de)(de)一個主要困難(nan)。
第二，正確(que)評(ping)價(jia)污(wu)水(shui)再(zai)(zai)生(sheng)利(li)用所具有的環(huan)境(jing)和公眾健康(kang)風險(xian)(xian)(xian)。若污(wu)水(shui)再(zai)(zai)生(sheng)利(li)用技術(shu)缺(que)乏或不當，會(hui)造成嚴重后果。因此，在(zai)計劃污(wu)水(shui)再(zai)(zai)生(sheng)利(li)用工程(cheng)以前，要(yao)對其環(huan)境(jing)和健康(kang)風險(xian)(xian)(xian)進行(xing)詳(xiang)細、 科學 的不確(que)定性分(fen)析和風險(xian)(xian)(xian)評(ping)價(jia)[20]。但是這一過程(cheng)涉及的系(xi)列環(huan)境(jing)評(ping)價(jia)和經濟評(ping)價(jia)技術(shu)在(zai)我國都(dou)未盡(jin)完(wan)善，從而增加(jia)了(le)發展(zhan)污(wu)水(shui)再(zai)(zai)生(sheng)利(li)用的風險(xian)(xian)(xian)。
第三，建(jian)(jian)立(li)國家專項節水(shui)(shui)基金，發(fa)行債券，也可借助民間(jian)和外資(zi)力(li)量，多方面多渠(qu)道(dao)籌集資(zi)金，支持、鼓勵建(jian)(jian)設(she)節水(shui)(shui)和污水(shui)(shui)再(zai)生回用設(she)施。目前，污水(shui)(shui)再(zai)生利用的成本還(huan)比較高(gao)，尤其是(shi)規(gui)模較小的中水(shui)(shui)工程。按北京市統計，只有水(shui)(shui)量大于150m3/d的污水(shui)(shui)再(zai)生利用工程在經濟上(shang)才是(shi)可行的，而現有建(jian)(jian)筑中水(shui)(shui)的規(gui)模大多小于該值[21]。因此(ci)對于分散型(xing)污水(shui)(shui)再(zai)生利用設(she)施而言，中水(shui)(shui)成本與自來水(shui)(shui)價格以及(ji)城(cheng)市污水(shui)(shui)處理(li)費(fei)相(xiang)比并不低，在成本上(shang)往往不具有競爭優勢。此(ci)外，建(jian)(jian)筑中水(shui)(shui)系統還(huan)要涉及(ji)室內(nei)甚(shen)至整(zheng)個城(cheng)市上(shang)下水(shui)(shui)系統等的改造(zao)，給(gei)用戶(hu)和市政增(zeng)加了額(e)外的負(fu)擔[22]。
第四(si)，對(dui)(dui)公眾進行適當的(de)(de)宣(xuan)傳、引導。國內公眾仍(reng)未完全(quan)接受污水再(zai)生(sheng)利用，主要(yao)是由(you)(you)于(yu)信息不充分，對(dui)(dui)健(jian)康的(de)(de)擔憂，心理的(de)(de)障礙以(yi)及出于(yu)成本上的(de)(de)考慮所造成的(de)(de)。由(you)(you)于(yu)缺乏相應(ying)的(de)(de)宣(xuan)傳和公眾參(can)與，公眾意識不到水資源管理面臨(lin)的(de)(de)嚴(yan)重問題(ti)，意識不到污水再(zai)生(sheng)利用對(dui)(dui)于(yu)保護水資源的(de)(de)重要(yao)性，對(dui)(dui)污水再(zai)生(sheng)利用產生(sheng)了誤(wu)解和對(dui)(dui)健(jian)康不必要(yao)的(de)(de)擔憂，這些都會(hui)阻礙他們(men)接受再(zai)生(sheng)水[23]。
第(di)五，制定(ding)城(cheng)市節水(shui)(shui)和(he)污水(shui)(shui)再生(sheng)利(li)用的(de)(de)(de)技(ji)術(shu)指標(biao)(biao)體系;定(ding)期發布適(shi)用集(ji)成的(de)(de)(de)技(ji)術(shu)措施(shi);制訂適(shi)度超前的(de)(de)(de)標(biao)(biao)準(zhun)、規范，為技(ji)術(shu)發展留下(xia)空(kong)間(jian)。本著“優(you)水(shui)(shui)優(you)用，劣(lie)水(shui)(shui)劣(lie)用”的(de)(de)(de)原則，依(yi)不同(tong)的(de)(de)(de)回用對象和(he)相應標(biao)(biao)準(zhun)，確定(ding)不同(tong)的(de)(de)(de)處理(li)技(ji)術(shu)，可(ke)大(da)大(da)節省(sheng)工程投資和(he)運行成本。
第六，制定(ding)鼓勵(li)污(wu)水(shui)再(zai)(zai)生利用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)的(de)(de)(de)(de)相(xiang)關政策。首(shou)先是(shi)水(shui)價(jia)體系的(de)(de)(de)(de)不合理(li)。長期來(lai)，我(wo)國的(de)(de)(de)(de)傳統水(shui)資源價(jia)格一直處于較(jiao)低的(de)(de)(de)(de)水(shui)平，對于用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)戶(hu)而(er)言使(shi)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)再(zai)(zai)生水(shui)并(bing)不比使(shi)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)自(zi)來(lai)水(shui)在成(cheng)本上有多大的(de)(de)(de)(de)節約，因此我(wo)國的(de)(de)(de)(de)水(shui)價(jia)體系不能夠激勵(li)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)戶(hu)自(zi)動地采用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)再(zai)(zai)生水(shui)。其次(ci)是(shi)尚未建立起再(zai)(zai)生水(shui)的(de)(de)(de)(de)收費機制，在這種情(qing)況下，污(wu)水(shui)處理(li)廠不愿意(yi)也沒有相(xiang)應的(de)(de)(de)(de)財(cai)力進行污(wu)水(shui)深度處理(li)和(he)管網(wang)的(de)(de)(de)(de)投資。最后是(shi)污(wu)水(shui)缺乏污(wu)水(shui)再(zai)(zai)生利用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)產業的(de)(de)(de)(de)投資激勵(li)政策，造成(cheng)了(le)投資來(lai)源的(de)(de)(de)(de)匱乏。
1.3.3污水再生利用現狀
我國的(de)再生水利用 理論 研究 和實踐經歷了“六五(wu)(wu)”期間的(de)起步階段(duan)(1980～1985)，“七五(wu)(wu)”到“九五(wu)(wu)”期間的(de)技術儲備和示范工(gong)程引導階段(duan)(1986～2000)和目前的(de)發展階段(duan)[8]，主(zhu)要活動如(ru)表(biao)8所示。
表8 我國再生水利(li)用(yong)歷程概括
|
階段 |
時期 |
研究課題 |
重大實踐項目 |
政(zheng)策(ce)法(fa)規 |
標準(zhun)、規范 |
|
起步階段(duan) |
六五 |
建設部“六五”計劃再生水利用(yong)課題 |
北京市環保研究(jiu)所(suo)中(zhong)水(shui)試點工程；北京國(guo)際貿易中(zhong)心(xin)中(zhong)水(shui)工程 |
||
|
引(yin)導(dao)階段 |
七五 |
水污染(ran)防(fang)治及城市(shi)污水資(zi)源化技術(shu) |
以北京市為首的一批(pi)建筑（小區）中水(shui)工程 |
北京市中水(shui)設施建(jian)設管理試行辦法（1987） |
生活雜用水水質標準 |
|
八五 |
污(wu)水凈(jing)化與資源化技術 |
建設部(bu)“城市中水設施(shi)管理暫行辦法”（1995） |
景觀娛樂用水水質標準 |
||
|
九五 |
污(wu)水處理與水工業關鍵技術研究 |
一些集中(zhong)再生水(shui)利用(yong)工(gong)程(cheng) |
行業標(biao)準：再生水(shui)回(hui)用(yong)于(yu)景觀(guan)水(shui)體水(shui)質標(biao)準 |
||
|
發(fa)展階(jie)段(duan) |
十五 |
污(wu)水資(zi)源化(hua)利用技術與示范 |
再生(sheng)水利用被寫入“十五”綱要 |
國標：建筑(zhu)中水(shui)設計(ji)規范，污水(shui)回用設計(ji)規范 |
目前，我國(guo)再(zai)生水的(de)用途有以下方面(mian)：城市、工業、農(nong)業、環境娛樂和補充(chong)水源(yuan)水等。根據具體的(de)使用目的(de)和水質(zhi)要求(qiu)不(bu)同(tong)，水源(yuan)、污水再(zai)生利(li)用的(de)設(she)施(shi)和技術也隨之(zhi)不(bu)同(tong)。
再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)于(yu)(yu)(yu)城(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)雜用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)的(de)具(ju)體(ti)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)途有：綠化(hua)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)、沖(chong)(chong)洗車輛用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)、澆灑(sa)道路用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)、廁所(suo)沖(chong)(chong)洗水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)、建(jian)筑施工(gong)(gong)(gong)和(he)(he)消防用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)。市(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)政雜用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)的(de)再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)與人體(ti)接(jie)觸(chu)的(de)可(ke)(ke)能(neng)性(xing)(xing)較(jiao)大(da)(da)，因(yin)此(ci)(ci)需要(yao)(yao)進行(xing)嚴格的(de)消毒(du)。再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)于(yu)(yu)(yu)農業(ye)(ye)可(ke)(ke)以采用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)直接(jie)灌(guan)溉和(he)(he)排至灌(guan)溉渠或自(zi)然水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)體(ti)進行(xing)間(jian)接(jie)回(hui)(hui)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)兩(liang)種方(fang)(fang)(fang)式。農業(ye)(ye)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)需求(qiu)(qiu)(qiu)(qiu)量(liang)大(da)(da)，水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)質(zhi)要(yao)(yao)求(qiu)(qiu)(qiu)(qiu)一般(ban)也不高，是(shi)污水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)利(li)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)產業(ye)(ye)的(de)主(zhu)要(yao)(yao)需求(qiu)(qiu)(qiu)(qiu)者之一。一般(ban)經二級處(chu)(chu)理的(de)城(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)污水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)出水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)質(zhi)都能(neng)達到或超過農業(ye)(ye)灌(guan)溉用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)標準(zhun)。國(guo)外(wai)再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)利(li)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)的(de)經驗告訴我們(men)，用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)于(yu)(yu)(yu)農業(ye)(ye)的(de)再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)量(liang)通常都占較(jiao)大(da)(da)的(de)比重。再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)于(yu)(yu)(yu)工(gong)(gong)(gong)業(ye)(ye)包含兩(liang)方(fang)(fang)(fang)面(mian)：工(gong)(gong)(gong)業(ye)(ye)利(li)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)的(de)城(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)污水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)和(he)(he)工(gong)(gong)(gong)業(ye)(ye)廢水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)的(de)內部循環。工(gong)(gong)(gong)業(ye)(ye)對再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)的(de)需求(qiu)(qiu)(qiu)(qiu)量(liang)很大(da)(da)，對水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)質(zhi)的(de)要(yao)(yao)求(qiu)(qiu)(qiu)(qiu)也多種多樣。再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)可(ke)(ke)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)于(yu)(yu)(yu)量(liang)大(da)(da)面(mian)廣的(de)冷卻水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)、洗滌沖(chong)(chong)洗用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)及其它(ta)工(gong)(gong)(gong)藝低質(zhi)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)，因(yin)此(ci)(ci)它(ta)最(zui)適合冶(ye)金、電(dian)力(li)、石(shi)油化(hua)工(gong)(gong)(gong)、煤化(hua)工(gong)(gong)(gong)等工(gong)(gong)(gong)業(ye)(ye)部門的(de)利(li)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)[17]。環境娛樂(le)性(xing)(xing)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)主(zhu)要(yao)(yao)為形(xing)成娛樂(le)性(xing)(xing)或觀賞性(xing)(xing)湖泊等。娛樂(le)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)又(you)可(ke)(ke)以分(fen)為主(zhu)要(yao)(yao)接(jie)觸(chu)和(he)(he)次要(yao)(yao)接(jie)觸(chu)兩(liang)大(da)(da)類。主(zhu)要(yao)(yao)接(jie)觸(chu)是(shi)指(zhi)人體(ti)同(tong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)的(de)接(jie)觸(chu)是(shi)長時間(jian)的(de)和(he)(he)直接(jie)的(de)，并(bing)且有吸入的(de)可(ke)(ke)能(neng)，比如游泳;次要(yao)(yao)接(jie)觸(chu)是(shi)指(zhi)諸如劃船、釣魚和(he)(he)進行(xing)觀賞等活(huo)動，一般(ban)情(qing)況下(xia)(xia)(xia)并(bing)無(wu)浸水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)的(de)可(ke)(ke)能(neng)。根據(ju)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)與人體(ti)接(jie)觸(chu)的(de)方(fang)(fang)(fang)式不同(tong)，必(bi)須采用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)不同(tong)的(de)處(chu)(chu)理程度(du)(du)[24]。污水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)利(li)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)的(de)其它(ta)方(fang)(fang)(fang)式還包括地(di)下(xia)(xia)(xia)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)回(hui)(hui)灌(guan)和(he)(he)飲(yin)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)型(xing)回(hui)(hui)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)。地(di)下(xia)(xia)(xia)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)回(hui)(hui)灌(guan)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)于(yu)(yu)(yu)防止地(di)面(mian)沉降、海(hai)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)及苦咸水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)入侵及補充地(di)下(xia)(xia)(xia)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)儲(chu)量(liang)。再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)于(yu)(yu)(yu)生(sheng)(sheng)活(huo)飲(yin)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)源我國(guo)尚無(wu)先例，但在國(guo)外(wai)已有 應用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong) ，如南非(fei)的(de)溫得霍克(ke)市(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)和(he)(he)美國(guo)堪薩(sa)斯州的(de)查紐特等，而且由于(yu)(yu)(yu)處(chu)(chu)理得當都未發生(sheng)(sheng)衛(wei)生(sheng)(sheng)問(wen)題(ti)。但是(shi)大(da)(da)多數(shu)地(di)區(qu)對此(ci)(ci)仍保(bao)持保(bao)守態度(du)(du)，如美國(guo)環保(bao)局認為，除非(fei)別無(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)源可(ke)(ke)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)，盡可(ke)(ke)能(neng)不以再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)作為飲(yin)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)源[25]。表(biao)9為我國(guo)北方(fang)(fang)(fang)部分(fen)城(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)集中污水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)處(chu)(chu)理回(hui)(hui)用(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)(yong)工(gong)(gong)(gong)程，表(biao)10是(shi)我國(guo)部分(fen)城(cheng)(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)(shi)建(jian)筑(小區(qu))中水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)系統建(jian)設情(qing)況，部分(fen)工(gong)(gong)(gong)程的(de)處(chu)(chu)理工(gong)(gong)(gong)藝如下(xia)(xia)(xia)[26]。
1. 中國市(shi)政工程東北設計研究院與(yu)大連(lian)春柳河污水(shui)廠(chang)經過長期 科技 攻關(guan)與(yu)工程實(shi)踐提(ti)出的城(cheng)市(shi)廢水(shui)回用于工業循(xun)環(huan)冷卻的再(zai)生水(shui)處理流程：
2. 清華大學與太原化(hua)工廠等單位(wei)合作(zuo)，提出城市污(wu)水回用于化(hua)工循環冷卻(que)水的再(zai)生處理流程：
3. 中(zhong)(zhong)國科學院(yuan)生態環境研究中(zhong)(zhong)心與北(bei)京(jing)燕山石油化工(gong)公(gong)司提出石油化工(gong)廢水回(hui)用(yong)于冷卻的處理流程(cheng)：
4. 中國(guo)市政工程華北設計研究院(yuan)提(ti)出再生(sheng)水回用于(yu)景觀水體的工藝流程：
5. 我(wo)國(guo)以石油(you)(you)污水(shui)為原水(shui)再(zai)生(sheng)處(chu)理(li)(li)回注油(you)(you)田地(di)下的處(chu)理(li)(li)流程(cheng)：
表9 我(wo)國北方部分城市集中污水處理回用工(gong)程(cheng)[20][27][28]
|
城市 |
污(wu)水處理廠 |
回用規模 |
回用對象 |
起始(shi)時間(jian) |
|
北京 |
高碑店北小河(he) |
30 |
電廠(chang)冷卻水、道路、綠(lv)地綠(lv)化、市政、河道 |
2000年 |
|
天津 |
東郊 |
6 |
工業用 |
1995年 |
|
石家莊 |
橋西 |
景觀、河道 |
2000年前 |
|
|
保定 |
景(jing)觀(guan)、河道 |
2000年(nian)前 |
||
|
秦(qin)皇島 |
海(hai)港(gang)區 |
2 |
煤(mei)碼頭用(yong)水 |
1995年 |
|
邯鄲 |
邯(han)鄲北 |
4 |
電(dian)廠冷(leng)卻水 |
1998年 |
|
青島 |
海泊河 |
1 |
沖廁、澆灑、冷卻 |
1998年 |
|
威海 |
0.5 |
電廠冷卻水(shui)和沖灰(hui)水(shui) |
1993年 |
|
|
棗莊 |
景觀、河道 |
2000年前 |
||
|
泰安 |
2 |
綠化(hua)、河道補水、工業 |
1995年 |
|
|
大連 |
春柳 |
1 |
冷卻、工藝用水 |
1991年 |
|
鞍山 |
20 |
鞍鋼工業用水 |
1995年后 |
|
|
太原 |
北郊 |
1 |
太鋼高爐冷卻水 |
1991年 |
|
大同 |
東郊 |
1 |
電廠冷卻水 |
1995年(nian)后 |
|
西安 |
鄧(deng)家(jia)村(cun) |
6 |
綠(lv)化(hua)、生活雜(za)用、工業 |
2002年(nian) |
|
銅川 |
0.7 |
電(dian)廠冷卻水 |
1995年后 |
表10 我國部分城市建(jian)(jian)筑(小區)中水(shui)系統建(jian)(jian)設情(qing)況*[27]
|
城市 |
中(zhong)水系統(tong)數量 |
運行數 |
最早(zao)開始運行時間(jian) |
|
北京 |
120 |
60 |
1985 |
|
西安 |
1 |
1 |
1988 |
|
煙臺 |
20 |
不祥 |
1989 |
|
大同 |
1 |
1 |
1991 |
|
深圳 |
29 |
2 |
1992 |
|
大連 |
10 |
2 |
1996 |
|
新鄉 |
1 |
1 |
1996 |
*截止到1996年底，含在建項目(mu)
最近，為貫徹我國(guo)水(shui)(shui)(shui)污(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)染(ran)防治和水(shui)(shui)(shui)資源(yuan)開發利(li)(li)用(yong)(yong)的方針(zhen)，提高城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)污(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)利(li)(li)用(yong)(yong)效率(lv)，做好城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)節約用(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)工作，合理利(li)(li)用(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)資源(yuan)，實(shi)現城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)污(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)資源(yuan)化，減輕(qing)污(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)對環(huan)境的污(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)染(ran)，促(cu)進城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)建設(she)和經濟建設(she)可持續發展(zhan)，城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)污(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)再生利(li)(li)用(yong)(yong)國(guo)家(jia)標準(zhun)(zhun)化管(guan)理委員會批準(zhun)(zhun)發布并實(shi)施(shi)的三項國(guo)家(jia)標準(zhun)(zhun)：《城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)污(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)再生利(li)(li)用(yong)(yong) 分類》(GB/T18919-2002);《城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)污(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)再生利(li)(li)用(yong)(yong)城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)雜用(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)水(shui)(shui)(shui)質》(GB/T18920-2002);《城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)污(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)再生利(li)(li)用(yong)(yong)景(jing)觀環(huan)境用(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)水(shui)(shui)(shui)質》(GB/T18921-2002)。這三項城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)污(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)再生利(li)(li)用(yong)(yong)國(guo)家(jia)標準(zhun)(zhun)的頒布實(shi)施(shi)填補(bu)了(le)我國(guo)城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)污(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)再生利(li)(li)用(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)質標準(zhun)(zhun)的空(kong)白，為實(shi)現污(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)資源(yuan)化提供(gong)了(le)技(ji)術依據。該系列標準(zhun)(zhun)還包括《城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)污(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)再生利(li)(li)用(yong)(yong)補(bu)充水(shui)(shui)(shui)源(yuan)水(shui)(shui)(shui)質》和《城(cheng)市(shi)(shi)(shi)污(wu)(wu)(wu)(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)再生利(li)(li)用(yong)(yong)工業用(yong)(yong)水(shui)(shui)(shui)水(shui)(shui)(shui)質》。
再(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)價格(ge)(ge)是污(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)利用(yong)市場化的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)核心要素。一方面，在再(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)質和(he)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)量能(neng)(neng)滿足(zu)安全性和(he)穩定性的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)情況下，價格(ge)(ge)是決定需(xu)(xu)求的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)主要因(yin)素，合理的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)價格(ge)(ge)機制能(neng)(neng)夠對再(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)需(xu)(xu)求產生(sheng)(sheng)經濟激勵(li)。另一方面，再(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)價格(ge)(ge)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)平又決定了污(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)利用(yong) 企業 是否能(neng)(neng)夠得到(dao)足(zu)夠的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)收益以滿足(zu)其財(cai)務平衡的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)需(xu)(xu)求。因(yin)此為了培育再(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)市場并(bing)為污(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)利用(yong)產業的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)良性運轉提供資(zi)金保證，應(ying)當建立起再(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)收費制度，以補(bu)償污(wu)水(shui)(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)(sheng)利用(yong)設(she)(she)施的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)投資(zi)、建設(she)(she)和(he)運營的(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)(de)支出。
目前我(wo)(wo)國再(zai)生水(shui)(shui)的(de)收(shou)費(fei)制度存在的(de)主要問題是：再(zai)生水(shui)(shui)水(shui)(shui)價(jia)過低或甚至沒有價(jia)格，以及再(zai)生水(shui)(shui)的(de)價(jia)格管(guan)制政策(ce)沿襲了(le)傳統(tong)的(de)收(shou)益率管(guan)制政策(ce)。在前一種情(qing)況下，由于(yu)沒有其它措施保(bao)證污水(shui)(shui)再(zai)生利(li)用(yong)(yong)產(chan)業(ye)(ye)投資者的(de)基本收(shou)益，使得該產(chan)業(ye)(ye)缺(que)乏足夠的(de)市(shi)場資金投入(ru)。而后者可能會造(zao)成污水(shui)(shui)再(zai)生利(li)用(yong)(yong)企業(ye)(ye)的(de)成本膨脹，而不利(li)于(yu)提(ti)高(gao)產(chan)業(ye)(ye)效(xiao)率。因此，必須建立(li)我(wo)(wo)國再(zai)生水(shui)(shui)價(jia)格的(de)合理體系(xi)，保(bao)障(zhang)我(wo)(wo)國污水(shui)(shui)再(zai)生利(li)用(yong)(yong)產(chan)業(ye)(ye)的(de)良性(xing)運行。
污水(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)利(li)用(yong)產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)業(ye)在我國尚處于發(fa)展(zhan)之初，它(ta)在未來是否能夠發(fa)展(zhan)到一定的(de)(de)(de)市場規(gui)模，成為(wei)緩(huan)減水(shui)(shui)(shui)資(zi)源(yuan)短缺(que)和(he)水(shui)(shui)(shui)污染嚴重的(de)(de)(de)重要手段，將(jiang)不僅取決(jue)于其自身的(de)(de)(de)經濟技術可(ke)行性，而且還與政府(fu)的(de)(de)(de)產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)業(ye)政策密(mi)切相(xiang)關。健全(quan)的(de)(de)(de)污水(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)利(li)用(yong)產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)業(ye)政策可(ke)以(yi)發(fa)展(zhan)污水(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)利(li)用(yong)產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)業(ye)，擴大再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)的(de)(de)(de)需求(qiu)，提高污水(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)利(li)用(yong)在解決(jue)水(shui)(shui)(shui)資(zi)源(yuan)短缺(que)的(de)(de)(de)諸多解決(jue)方案中的(de)(de)(de)重要性;可(ke)以(yi)規(gui)范污水(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)利(li)用(yong)產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)業(ye)，保(bao)障再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)水(shui)(shui)(shui)安(an)全(quan)性和(he)經濟效(xiao)率目(mu)標(biao)的(de)(de)(de)實現;可(ke)以(yi)激勵污水(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)利(li)用(yong)企業(ye)提高運營(ying)效(xiao)率、降低成本;可(ke)以(yi)優化政府(fu)職能，為(wei)污水(shui)(shui)(shui)再(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)(zai)生(sheng)利(li)用(yong)產(chan)(chan)(chan)(chan)業(ye)的(de)(de)(de)發(fa)展(zhan)提供良(liang)好的(de)(de)(de)體制環境。
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